HARMONIZING TECHNOLOGY AND LAW FOR LUNAR
RESOURCE UTILIZATION: MACHINE LEARNING STANDARDS
AND ALGORITHMIC APPROACHES TO CRATER MINING AND
ICE HARVESTING UNDER THE MOON TREATY AND ARTEMIS
ACCORDS

J. SANDALINAS

Corresponding Author: Lawyer, Space Law and Policy. Enseignant-chercheur, University of Toulouse Capitole. Embry Riddle Aeronautical University / International Space University Alumnus. Drone Pilot. jordi@spacelaw.net

Abstract

This research examines the legal challenges posed by the Moon Treaty and the Artemis Accords, focusing on whether these instruments contemplate and integrate technological advancements, particularly the application of machine learning standards and algorithmic approaches to crater mining and ice harvesting on the Moon. Lunar activities require significant technological reassessments to address challenges such as the Moon’s lack of atmosphere, particularly regarding unmanned aerial operations. These activities, aimed at detecting water ice on lunar soil, necessitate technical innovations that raise critical questions about the intellectual property status of emerging lunar technologies. Innovation beyond the current technical status quo demands advancements in state-of-the-art technologies, which, in turn, necessitate updates to legal standards, especially concerning intellectual property issues related to space technologies. The study explores how the Moon Treaty and the Artemis Accords integrate technology and law, how they could accommodate machine learning standards and algorithmic approaches for lunar exploration, and how both legal instruments address intellectual property matters concerning technological developments for lunar applications, particularly intangible assets like algorithms. Machine learning standards and algorithms, as intangible assets, possess unique characteristics that intersect with the challenges of lunar resource exploration and exploitation. These technologies, deployed via drones or unmanned lunar vehicles, must overcome the Moon’s unique atmospheric challenges, vastly different from those on Earth. This paper presents a cutting-edge strategy for exploiting lunar resources within the legal boundaries of the Moon Treaty and the Artemis Accords. Recent research proposes employing advanced fixed-wing lunar drones equipped with vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) capabilities, sophisticated navigation systems, and robotics optimized for crater mining and ice harvesting [1]. These drones utilize a comprehensive array of sensors and are equipped with machine learning algorithms, enabling them to independently navigate and harvest resources on the lunar surface, particularly in permanently shadowed regions abundant with water ice. These discoveries underscore the viability of using local resources (ISRU) to facilitate a lasting human settlement on the Moon, demonstrated by the processing of collected ice into oxygen and hydrogen fuel. Furthermore, the research thoroughly reviews the legal implications in accordance with the Moon Treaty and Artemis Accords, focusing on the challenges associated with the exploitation of resources, adherence to the principle of non-appropriation, commitment to peaceful exploration, and fostering global cooperation and commitment to preserving the lunar environment. By situating the technological developments in the context of the Lunar NewSpace Economy—propelled by international collaboration and public-private partnerships— and recent lunar missions, the study sheds light on the evolving landscape of lunar exploration and exploitation. The author calls for a harmonized international legal framework that balances the principles of free exploration and exploitation with the ethical and ecological imperatives of space activities. This paper contributes to the discourse on legal and technological strategies for harnessing lunar resources, advocating for a future where lunar exploration is conducted within a framework of global cooperation, environmental respect, and shared benefits for all humanity. As humanity advances towards sustained lunar presence, machine learning (ML) technologies play an increasingly critical role in optimizing resource utilization. This paper discusses the integration of ML standards for crater mining and ice harvesting on the Moon, addressing regulatory frameworks such as the Moon Treaty and Artemis Accords, technical challenges in applying ML, and provides conclusions based on intellectual property law analogies.

 

Introduction

Recent advancements in lunar exploration have greatly enhanced our knowledge of the Moon and its resource potential. The absence of an atmosphere on the Moon leads to extreme temperature variations, uneven resource distribution, and inhospitable conditions, with only trace amounts of gases like helium, neon, and sodium present in the lunar exosphere. Notable discoveries, such as the in-situ detection of water ice in permanently shadowed regions by missions like Chang’E-5, have established water ice as a vital resource for sustaining life and producing fuel. The Chang’E-5 mission also revealed water (OH + H2O) concentrations reaching up to 120 ppm in lunar regolith, highlighting the critical role of spectral contrast in locating water ice deposits across different lunar terrains. Geological studies suggest that volcanic activity on the Moon has played a role in creating temporary atmospheres and releasing volatiles, providing valuable insights into potential water and hydrogen sources. These findings have profound implications for resource extraction efforts. Emerging technologies like machine learning and drone systems offer promising capabilities for more accurately identifying resource-rich areas. Additionally, the use of gravitational dynamics can enhance mission planning and operational efficiency, offering innovative solutions for lunar exploration and sustainable resource utilization (Parkinson et al., 2023; Lin et al., 2022; Contarini et al., 1996; Needham & Kring, 2017; NASA Science, n.d.).
The objective of establishing a lasting and environmentally responsible human presence on the Moon hinges on addressing key requirements such as the provision of oxygen for breathing. A viable solution involves integrating an ice storage facility designed to store and process lunar ice through electrolysis. This facility would produce essential outputs, including hydrogen for fuel and oxygen for breathing, thereby supporting both life support systems and energy needs. Such an approach offers a sustainable method for utilizing lunar resources, contributing to the broader goal of long-term human habitation on the Moon. The renewed global interest in lunar exploration has accelerated the development of technologies aimed at extracting resources from the Moon. Ice harvesting and crater mining are among the key activities identified for enabling a sustainable lunar presence. Machine learning (ML), with its capacity to process large datasets and make predictive analyses, offers transformative potential for these operations. However, the lack of standardized approaches to implementing ML in this context poses significant challenges (Kornuta et al. 2019).
The Moon Treaty, adopted in 1979, aims to ensure that the Moon’s resources are utilized for the benefit of all humankind. It emphasizes environmental protection and equitable resource sharing. Although not widely ratified, its principles continue to shape ongoing debates about lunar governance. Similarly, the Artemis Accords establish a framework for collaboration in space exploration. Both instruments advocate for transparency, the deconfliction of activities, and sustainable practices. The Accords provide a cooperative foundation for lunar resource activities, including mining and ice harvesting [2].

How does the Moon Treaty integrate technology and law?

Preliminary remarks

Several notions already established within the international community can be applied to international space law by analogy. For instance, the concept of “sovereignty over national resources” raises questions about its applicability to lunar resources, particularly since outer space and celestial bodies are designated as non-jurisdictional international areas, akin to international waters. Principles such as «polluter pays» emphasize accountability for environmental damage, while the precautionary principle, which shifts the burden of proof, mandates proactive measures to prevent harm even in the absence of conclusive evidence. Equitable cost-sharing for mitigating environmental impacts ensures that the financial burden of addressing damage is fairly distributed among stakeholders. Moreover, “sustainable development” serves as a guiding framework, emphasizing environmentally and socially responsible practices in lunar exploration and resource utilization.
Outer space is regarded as res communis, a domain belonging to all humanity, where free exploration and exploitation are permitted under international law, provided they benefit all countries and humankind. The principle of “non-appropriation” prohibits sovereign claims over celestial bodies, raising questions about jurisdiction and control over potential lunar settlements. Activities must adhere to the principle of “peaceful purposes,” ensuring that exploration and resource utilization do not result in conflicts or militarization in outer space. Furthermore, the principle of “ultimate state responsibility” extends to ensuring safety standards, aiding astronauts, and maintaining accountability in compliance with international space law. These principles collectively form the legal and ethical framework governing activities in outer space [3].

The Moon Treaty: A Framework for Cooperative and Peaceful Lunar Exploration.

The Moon Treaty, binding among its ratifying states, represents a significant step toward fostering international collaboration in lunar exploration and resource utilization. As of January 2022, 18 countries are parties to the treaty. However, recent developments include Saudi Arabia’s withdrawal on January 5, 2023, underscoring the evolving geopolitical dynamics in space governance.
The Moon Treaty aims to foster international cooperation, ensure the peaceful use of the Moon, and prevent conflicts arising from its exploration and utilization. It establishes a legal framework based on several core principles. First, it prohibits sovereign claims over the Moon or other celestial bodies, reinforcing the tenets of non-appropriation in international space law. It designates the Moon for peaceful purposes, preventing military activities and uses that could incite conflict. The treaty also promotes cooperation and equity, emphasizing that lunar activities should benefit all humankind while addressing the needs of future generations. Furthermore, it guarantees the freedom of scientific investigation, encouraging global participation in lunar exploration, and mandates environmental protection to prevent harmful contamination of the Moon and Earth. A key tenet is the Moon’s status as the «common heritage of humankind,» requiring equitable resource sharing and envisioning an international regime to govern resource exploitation. To ensure transparency and accountability, the treaty obligates states to inform the United Nations and the global public about their lunar activities and discoveries. This requirement fosters trust and oversight in lunar operations. It also grants jurisdiction and control to states over their personnel and equipment on the Moon while emphasizing the responsibility to assist astronauts in distress, reinforcing mutual aid principles in space exploration. Recognizing the dynamic nature of space exploration, the treaty includes provisions for amendments and reviews, ensuring adaptability to technological advancements and the evolving needs of the international space community. This comprehensive approach integrates legal and governance mechanisms to facilitate responsible and cooperative lunar exploration [4].

Legal Pathways to Technological Integration According to the Moon Treaty

The Moon Treaty allows implicitly technology and law by granting all states the freedom to conduct scientific investigations, fostering the development of advanced technologies such as robotics, machine learning, and resource extraction systems, while ensuring compliance with peaceful use and non-appropriation principles. The treaty emphasizes environmental protection, requiring technologies that minimize contamination and safeguard the lunar ecosystem through tools like automated mining systems and monitoring algorithms. By designating the Moon as the common heritage of humankind, it necessitates equitable sharing of resources and encourages collaboration in developing technologies like mining drones and in-situ resource utilization systems. Transparency is mandated through reporting obligations, integrating governance with technological monitoring systems to ensure accountability. States retain jurisdiction over their technological assets on the Moon, enabling oversight of autonomous rovers and mining tools under international norms. Additionally, the treaty’s adaptability provisions ensure its legal framework evolves alongside emerging innovations such as artificial intelligence and machine learning. By fostering a balance between technological progress and legal oversight, the Moon Treaty constitutes a pathway for the responsible, sustainable, and inclusive exploration and utilization of lunar resources.
Article 3 of the Moon Treaty emphasizes commitment to the peaceful use of the Moon, prohibiting military activities such as the establishment of military bases, installations, or fortifications, as well as the testing of weapons and conducting military maneuvers. However, the article allows for the use of military personnel and equipment for scientific research or other peaceful purposes, ensuring that scientific exploration is not hindered by these restrictions [5]. This provision promotes international cooperation while maintaining the Moon as a neutral zone dedicated to peaceful exploration and utilization. It also underscores the importance of distinguishing between military and peaceful uses of technology to ensure compliance with the treaty’s objectives.
Article 18 introduces a mechanism for the periodic review and potential revision of the treaty, recognizing the evolving nature of space exploration and technological advancements. It mandates that ten years after the treaty’s entry into force, the United Nations General Assembly includes its review on the agenda, assessing its application and determining if revisions are necessary. The review conference will specifically address the implementation of Article 11, paragraph 5, which pertains to the equitable sharing of lunar resources, taking into account technological developments relevant to resource utilization. This adaptive approach ensures that the treaty remains relevant and capable of addressing future challenges and innovations in lunar exploration and governance.
Article 3 and Article 18 of the Moon Treaty reflect the integral role of technology and research in shaping the legal framework for lunar exploration. Article 3 explicitly permits the use of technology and research tools, including equipment and military personnel, provided they are dedicated to peaceful and scientific purposes. This highlights the treaty’s recognition of the indispensable role of technological advancements in fostering responsible and collaborative exploration. Article 18 further reinforces this connection by calling for a review of the treaty to account for technological developments, ensuring its provisions align with the evolving landscape of space research and innovation. Together, these articles underscore the treaty’s emphasis on leveraging technology and research within a legal framework that promotes peaceful, equitable, and sustainable use of the Moon.

Challenges in Machine Learning (ML) and Algorithmic expressions for Lunar Applications

Preliminary remarks

Articles 3 and 18 of the Moon Treaty indirectly reference advancements in space exploration, such as machine learning and algorithmic expressions, highlighting their relevance as emerging developments. These advancements could serve as a catalyst for revising the treaty or issuing a foundational statement through a soft law framework. Article 3 explicitly authorizes the use of technology and research tools, including equipment and military personnel, for peaceful and scientific purposes. Complementing this, Article 18 calls for a review of the treaty to address technological progress, ensuring its provisions remain aligned with the rapidly evolving field of space research and innovation. Together, these articles emphasize the treaty’s focus on integrating technology and research within a legal framework designed to support the peaceful, equitable, and sustainable exploration and utilization of the Moon.

Data Standardization, Environmental Constraints, and Legal Integration for Lunar Exploration

The standardization of data is a critical foundation for developing future legal frameworks for lunar exploration. Lunar operations generate diverse datasets, such as geological surveys, spectral analyses, and environmental monitoring. However, standardizing these datasets for machine learning (ML) applications poses significant challenges due to the variability in collection methods and sources. Establishing unified standards would ensure that ML systems are trained consistently and effectively, enhancing their reliability and applicability in complex lunar environments. This is particularly relevant when addressing environmental constraints and interoperability in lunar activities.
Environmental constraints, such as extreme radiation, temperature fluctuations, and communication delays, demand the deployment of robust and adaptive ML algorithms to ensure operational reliability. These constraints are especially critical for tasks like crater mining and ice harvesting, which require precise algorithmic expressions to address unique challenges posed by the lunar environment. Furthermore, interoperability is essential for fostering collaboration among stakeholders. Crater mining and ice harvesting often involve diverse platforms and technologies from multiple participants, necessitating interoperable ML models to prevent operational conflicts and facilitate efficient resource utilization.
Legal provisions under the Moon Treaty, particularly Articles 8 and 9, provide a basis for international cooperation and technological innovation. Article 8 emphasizes the importance of collaboration among nations, allowing diverse stakeholders to participate in lunar exploration and resource utilization. Article 9 supports the placement of unmanned stations, such as those deployed on unmanned aerial systems or Vertical Take Off Launch (VTOL) systems, for peaceful and scientific purposes. Together, these articles underline the need for standardized, interoperable data and technologies within an internationally cooperative framework. By integrating data standardization, adaptive technologies, and legal provisions, the development of future legal texts can secure responsible and sustainable lunar exploration for the benefit of all humankind.

Studies on the Artemis Accords.

Preliminary Remarks

The Artemis Accords, in conjunction with NASA’s Lunar Exploration Program, aim to establish a sustainable human presence on the Moon by leveraging lunar resources, such as water ice, to support ongoing activities and future missions to Mars. The program utilizes the expertise of multiple NASA centers for technology development, astronaut training, and mission execution, fostering collaboration with private sector companies and international space agencies. This cooperative framework drives innovation, transparency, and mutual benefit, ensuring cost-effective and efficient exploration efforts.
A key component of the Artemis Program is the extraction and utilization of lunar ice. Water ice is a valuable resource for life support, and can be converted into hydrogen fuel, reducing reliance on Earth-based supplies. Beyond its scientific and exploratory objectives, Artemis also drives significant economic growth by creating new industries, jobs, and a demand for a skilled workforce, solidifying its role as a cornerstone of sustainable space exploration for the benefit of all humankind.

Lunar technology, NewSpace Economy and Sustainability

NASA’s Artemis program represents a strategic approach to securing a sustainable human presence on the Moon through advanced missions and resource utilization technologies. Key initiatives include the deployment of the VIPER rover to analyze the lunar poles for water ice, the development of surface power technologies for long-term operations, and a glimpse on in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) to extract ice for breathable oxygen and hydrogen fuel. These efforts reduce dependency on Earth’s resources, paving the way for extended lunar habitation. The Artemis missions follow a phased approach toward sustainability and exploration. Artemis I (2021) tested critical systems with an uncrewed mission, while Artemis II (2023) plans a crewed mission around the Moon. Artemis III (2024) which mark the first human landing of the Artemis era, featuring the first woman to walk on the Moon and extended surface exploration activities. These milestones need to be revisited but serve as proving ground for future Mars missions, advancing humanity’s readiness for deeper space exploration while fostering a growing lunar NewSpace economy driven by international collaboration and public-private partnerships. Recent lunar missions further reflect this collaborative spirit. NASA’s Artemis Program targets the lunar South Pole for resource-rich exploration, while China’s Chang’e missions, India’s Chandrayaan-3, and Russia’s Luna Program each contribute to advancing lunar exploration capabilities. The Beresheet mission, despite its crash landing, exemplified the potential of private-sector contributions, showcasing cost-effective strategies and inspiring future efforts. These initiatives collectively underscore the global commitment to sustainable lunar exploration and the establishment of a thriving lunar economy [6].

Market and Legal Research on the Artemis Accords

The Artemis Accords serve as a regulatory and cooperative backbone for the burgeoning lunar economy, emphasizing transparency, sustainability, and interoperability. These principles address critical challenges such as high transportation costs, market valuation, and the development of in-space economies. Key provisions like Section 4 (Transparency) and Section 10 (Space Resources) mandate clear reporting and equitable resource utilization, while Section 5 (Interoperability) and Section 12 (Sustainability) foster collaboration to develop cost-efficient technologies and reusable systems [7].
Economic projections estimate the market potential for lunar mining and related activities to reach $30 billion by 2029, though more conservative assessments suggest $13 billion. The Accords support strategic market identification and stakeholder collaboration, ensuring long-term economic viability. Section 11 (Deconfliction of Space Activities) introduces safety zones to minimize conflicts and inefficiencies, promoting conflict-free exploration. Together, these provisions create an environment conducive to sustainable economic growth and innovation in space resource utilization [8].
Sections 10, 11, and 5 of the Artemis Accords outline a comprehensive framework for the sustainable and coordinated use of lunar resources. Section 10 ensures that resource utilization aligns with the principles of the Outer Space Treaty, emphasizing the critical role of resources in long-term space activities. Section 11 introduces safety zones to mitigate harmful interference during operations, while Section 5 highlights the need for interoperable infrastructure, including fuel storage and delivery systems. These provisions foster international cooperation, operational safety, and sustainable resource management.
The Artemis Accords also align with the «Space-for-Earth Economy,» emphasizing the dual-purpose development of space technologies that support both in-space and Earth-based economies. By integrating space mining and lunar resource activities into global markets, the Accords create opportunities for innovation while addressing production risks. The «Space-for-Earth Economy,» which accounted for 95% of the space sector’s $366 billion revenue in 2019, underscores the production risks involved in integrating space resources into Earth-based markets. These factors demand a strategic identification of market subsets and a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis to achieve sustainable and realistic market growth (Weinzierl, 2023; Maximize Market Research Pvt Ltd., 2023).

How would the Artemis Accords accommodate machine learning standards and algorithmic approaches for lunar exploration? Integrating Law and Technology.

Introduction

Studies by Tonasso et al. (2023) and Hassanalian et al. (2018) highlight the innovative application of lunar drones in exploring craters and shadowed regions, significantly advancing resource extraction efforts on the Moon. These lightweight and compact drones are designed for high-resolution lunar mapping and autonomous operations under extreme lunar conditions. Their aerodynamic design, tailored for the Moon’s lack of atmosphere, ensures optimal performance, enabling efficient surveying and detailed surface observations. Lunar drones surpass traditional exploration methods in versatility and efficiency, providing dynamic exploration capabilities while enhancing resource identification and assessment. Through the integration of machine learning and advanced navigation systems, these drones optimize the identification of resource-rich areas, such as regions containing water ice or valuable minerals. Their collaborative potential with ground-based systems and human missions further enhances the scope of lunar exploration, making them indispensable tools for sustainable resource utilization. By bridging gaps between technological innovation and planetary exploration, drones are reshaping how lunar resources are surveyed, extracted, and utilized, supporting the broader goals of lunar habitation and human missions.

Relevance of the Artemis Accords to Scientific Exploration and a New Soft Law Framework

The Artemis Accords demonstrate significant relevance to scientific exploration by providing a framework that fosters collaboration, transparency, and innovation. Their structured provisions align with core principles of international space law, particularly Article XI of the Outer Space Treaty, emphasize sharing scientific discoveries for the benefit of all humanity. This alignment creates a strong legal and ethical foundation for advancing global scientific knowledge while addressing the unique challenges of modern space exploration.

Transparency and Collaboration

Section 4 ensures transparency in the dissemination of national space policies and exploration plans, reducing inefficiencies and enabling a cooperative global approach to scientific discovery. This openness not only prevents duplication of efforts but also establishes a culture of inclusivity, where scientific and technological innovations are shared to benefit a wider audience. Transparency is critical in building trust among nations and private entities, encouraging further collaboration.

Interoperability: A Catalyst for Global Cooperation

Section 5 reinforces the necessity of interoperability in space exploration infrastructure, such as communication systems, fuel storage, and power networks. Standardized systems provide a common foundation for cooperative missions, ensuring that diverse stakeholders can seamlessly contribute to and benefit from joint scientific endeavors. By streamlining integration and collaboration, interoperability enables the efficient pooling of global resources and expertise, further accelerating the pace of scientific and technological innovation.

Open Sharing of Scientific Data

Section 8 exemplifies the Accords’ commitment to ensuring that scientific results are shared openly with the public and the international scientific community. This provision not only democratizes access to space-based discoveries but also creates opportunities for innovation through secondary research and analysis. Although private-sector operations are exempt from mandatory sharing, the inclusion of data generated on behalf of Signatories balances proprietary concerns with the broader goal of global access to knowledge. This incentivizes private-sector participation while maintaining a collective approach to scientific progress.

Potential Pathway to a New Soft Law Document

The principles enshrined in the Artemis Accords could serve as a foundation for a new soft law document tailored specifically to address the evolving needs of scientific exploration and resource utilization. Soft law instruments, which are flexible and non-binding, offer an ideal mechanism to extend the Accords’ framework to cover emerging areas of concern, such as equitable access to data, ethical considerations in the commercialization of scientific discoveries, and the long-term sustainability of scientific exploration. Such a document could encourage voluntary adherence to standards that support scientific innovation while balancing national interests and private-sector involvement.

Concluding remarks

Even though both texts do not directly reference machine learning or algorithmic expressions, a race for innovation and invention has begun. With the rise of private entrepreneurship and the increasing access of private ventures to space, intellectual property and innovation will undoubtedly play a pivotal role in shaping a unique soft law instrument for artificial intelligence and space operations. This includes unmanned technologies, machine learning, and algorithmic expressions. As intangible assets, data derived from lunar activities and source code should be regarded as both the object and subject of protection under intellectual property laws, which are applicable internationally and, indirectly, through space law. Therefore, the Berne Convention and other binding international instruments on intellectual property law should be considered as potential analogies for governing intellectual property in outer space [9].

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[1] See Hassanalian, M., Rice, D., Johnstone, S., & Abdelkefi, A. (2018). Performance analysis of fixed wing space drones in different solar system bodies. Acta Astronautica, 152, 27–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2018.07.018
[2] United Nations. (1979). Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Moon Treaty). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 1363, p. 3. Retrieved from https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-agreement.html; Artemis Accords. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). (2020). The Artemis Accords: Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, and Other Celestial Bodies. Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html
[3] See Outer Space Treaty United Nations. (1967). Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (Outer Space Treaty). United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 610, p. 205. Retrieved from https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html
[4] Relevant articles of the Moon Treaty include: Article 3 (peaceful use), Article 4 (cooperation and equity), Article 5 (transparency), Article 6 (freedom of scientific investigation), Article 7 (environmental protection), Article 10 (responsibility to assist astronauts), Article 11 (non-appropriation and common heritage of humankind), Article 12 (jurisdiction and control), and Article 17 (adaptability and review).
[5] In this regard, also Article IV, second paragraph of the Outer Space Treaty.
[6] Hoshino, T., Wakabayashi, S., Ohtake, M., Karouji, Y., & Hayashi, T. (2020). Lunar polar exploration mission for water prospection—JAXA’s current status of joint study with ISRO. Acta Astronautica, 176, 13-20.
[7] Artemis Accords ut supra.
[8] The Signatories agree to use adaptable safety zones to support scientific discovery, technology demonstration, and the safe, efficient extraction and utilization of space resources, fostering sustainable space exploration and operations.
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